Sperm physiology pdf

The larvae are capable of little horizontal, directional movement and are unable to swim independently of the water currents. They are totally reliant upon favorable currents to transport them to inshore waters. The migration from offshore waters to coastal bays occurs during the last planktonic stage and shrimp enter estuarine nursery grounds as postlarvae. Once they move into brackish waters, the postlarvae abandon their planktonic way of life and become part of the benthic community.

Postlarval and juvenile shrimp occupy the shallow, brackish waters of the Sound where they feed and grow. Growth of the young is rapid when waters are warm above Young shrimp remain in the estuary until they approach maturity. Adult shrimp migrate offshore to spawn, and the cycle is repeated. The ovary lies dorsal to the gut and extends from the cephalothorax head and thorax region along the entire length of the tail.

The determination of ovarian development reveals the shadow of the ovary in the tail region and is scored from 1 to 5. Figure 1. A female scored as a Stage IV during the day is most likely to spawn that night.

The intensity of the ovarian shadow is due to the different density of the ovary and the pigmentation of the egg mass. Although the majority of the ovary is found within the cephalothorax area, the intense pigmentation of the shell in this region prevents the visualization of any ovarian outline.

In immediate post-spawning females a vague shadow may be seen which is the area the previously enlarged ovary occupied. In some instances a dark shadow is seen with intermittent areas of vague shadow outline. This indicates that a partial spawning has occurred and that only a proportion of the egg mass was ovulated spawned. In penaeid prawns the ovaries are paired, but partially fused in the cephalothoracic region, and consist of a number of lateral lobes.

In an undeveloped state, the ovary either does not cast any shadow or a thin opaque line is seen along the length of the tail, and is scored as Stage 1. At this point the ovary is comprised of a connective tissue capsule surrounding a soft vascular area containing future eggs, called oogonia, and accessory cells, also called follicle or nurse cells.

The internal wall of the ovary capsule is lined with epithelial cells called the germinal epithelium containing oogonia. Once the female is sexually mature, the germinal epithelium will produce oogonia by mitosis division throughout the reproductive life of the female.

The eggs develop from oogonia in an area known as the zone of proliferation. As the oogonia develop they increase in size and enter the first stage of meiotic division and henceforth are irreversibly destined to become haploid, with only one set of maternal chromosomes.

At this point, although the developing eggs are increasing in size they are not as yet producing yolk, and are known as previtellogenic oocytes. At this stage the ovary can be visualized with a light beam as a large centrally located opaque rope-like structure, and classified as Stage 2. Typically, it is at Stage 2 that inhibitory hormones in the eyestalk, arising from what is called the X-organ-sinus-gland XO-SG neurosecretory complex, prevent further ovarian growth, especially if nutritional or environmental conditions — such as those while females are held in captivity in tanks — are deemed unfavourable by the female.

This block on ovarian development can be removed by eyestalk ablation. However, since the prawn is bilaterally symmetric, ie with two eyes, eyestalk ablation only results in the removal of one of the two XO-SG complexes producing an inhibitory substance. Nevertheless, in most cases this is sufficient to induce further ovarian development and spawning, albeit under sub-optimal conditions.

As the oocytes develop further they migrate out towards the margins of the ovarian lobes in preparation for ovulation. During this migration, follicle cells are attached to the periphery of each oocyte. It is believed that the follicle cells produce the yolk that is internalised in the oocytes in a process called vitellogenesis. As vitellogenesis proceeds, oocytes mature synchronously as yolk accumulates and develop a characteristic dark green colour as a result of deposition of carotenoid pigments.

It is the carotenoid pigmentation that mainly causes the dark ovarian shadow during illumination of the female by torchlight. The female is now in Stage 3. By the end of vitellogenesis, the eggs develop cortical granules filled with a jelly-like substance destined to form part of the egg shell membrane after ovulation. The saddle may not be as apparent in some broodstock, such as those that have made several spawnings after eyestalk ablation or in captive reared broodstock.

The female is now in a pre-spawning state and is scored as a Stage 4. The culmination of ovarian development is marked by release of the fully mature oocytes eggs into the oviduct at ovulation. Ovulation is typically followed within a few minutes by oviposition, ie the release of eggs and stored sperm into the water — the actual spawning event itself see sections on mating and spawning.

Within the egg the nuclear membrane disappears in readiness for fusion between the two haploid pronuclei, one in the egg originating from the female and the second, which comes from the sperm at the time of fertilization.

The complete ovary extends from the head to the tail. The majority of the ovarian mass is within the cephalothorax region which cannot be observed by torchlight. A female can spawn several times within a single molt cycle. A new population of primary oogonia is recruited for each spawning event. If the female does spawn repeatedly within a molt cycle the same reserve of sperm within the thelycum, from the initial mating after molt, is utilized to fertilise the eggs.

Typically, successive spawnings have progressively decreasing fertility rates as the sperm mass is exhausted. If the female does not spawn within a molt cycle, the developed ovarian mass is reabsorbed a day or two before the next molt. After each molt, the ovary is fully regressed and the ovary must mature a new. Decapod crabs are built like a folded-up lobster.

The abdomen, which is equivalent to a tail, is folded up tightly underneath its body to form an abdominal flap. When you turn a crab over and look underneath, you can tell a crab's sex by looking at its abdominal flap.

A male crab has a small triangular flap, while a female crab has a broad oval-shaped abdominal flap. When a male and female crab mate, many female decapod crabs can store the male sperm until her eggs are ready to be released. When the eggs are released, the stored sperm flows over them and they become fertilised.

The reproduction habits of crabs are interesting as well. The male delivers his sperm to the female for egg fertilization via the gonophores located on the legs. They then find a comfortable place for the female to lay her brood and watch over them until they hatch. The first two sets of appendages are used for sperm transfer and therefore the gonophores are located more towards the midline of the body.

The female crab holds the fertilised eggs in a big spongy mass between its abdominal flap and the body. The eggs are cemented to the pleopods, which are small legs, creating the "berried" appearance. To keep the eggs healthy, the female crab continually "waves" water over the eggs with the pleopods. When the eggs hatch into zoea larvae, they drift away in the ocean currents as plankton.

As the juvenile crab grows in size, it goes through a series of moults, each larval stage changing form and function as it grows in a process called metamorphosis. At each moult more segments are added to the end posterior , and the feathered limbs are replaced by the clawed limbs. The megalops stage more closely resembles the adult decapod crab. Mollusks are primarily of separate sexes and the reproductive organs gonads are simple. Reproduction via an unfertilized gamete parthenogenesis is also found among gastropods of the subclass Prosobranchia.

Most reproduction, however, is by sexual means. Eggs and sperm are released into the water by members of some primitive species, and fertilization occurs there.

In prosobranch gastropods, water currents may cause a simple internal fertilization within the mantle cavity, or males may fertilize eggs internally using a muscular penis. For example, in hermaphroditic bivalves and prosobranch gastropods, male and female gonads are functional at separate times and in rhythmic and consecutive patterns successive hermaphroditism. Conversely, male and female gonads are functional at the same time simultaneous hermaphroditism in solenogasters and many other gastropods.

Fertilization by transfer of capsules containing sperm spermatophores typically occurs in cephalopods and some gastropods.

In cephalopods, transfer of spermatophores is usually combined with copulation by a modified arm, or hectocotylus. Copulation in solenogasters, often by means of a special genital cone, may be supported by copulatory stylets. Various penis formations, in part with copulatory stylets, or darts, are widely found in gastropods. Eggs are deposited singly or in groups, generally on some hard surface and often within jelly masses or leathery capsules.

Squids of the suborder Oegopsida and some gastropods have eggs that are suspended in the water. The eggs of cephalopods, on the other hand, possess a large amount of yolk, which displaces the dividing cells and causes a characteristic type of development. Many mollusks develop into free-swimming larvae; these larvae are either feeding planktotrophic or nonfeeding lecithotrophic.

The larva in primitive bivalves is a pericalymma test cell larva in which the embryo is protected below a covering test of cells provided with one to four girdles of cilia, at the apex of which is a sensory plate of ciliated cells. After the developing juvenile has grown out apically of the test which then is lost , the animal settles and develops into an adult. The test in other lecithotrophic larvae is restricted to a preoral girdle of ciliated cells the prototrochus and is called the trochophore larva.

Trochophores are encountered in the development of many marine annelid species phylum Annelida. In these generally planktotrophic larvae, the girdle of ciliated cells widens to form a velum that entraps food and also propels the microscopic mollusk through the water. As the larva continues to develop, the shell, mantle cavity, tentacles, and foot appear. After a specific amount of time, which varies according to species and environmental conditions, the larva loses the velum and metamorphoses into an adult.

A substantial change in shell morphology usually marks the transition to adult form. Secondary newly evolved larvae have developed among some freshwater bivalves and some cephalopods.

Maternal protection of the developing eggs brood is not unexceptional behaviour in solenogasters, bivalves, and certain gastropod adults. Direct development without a larval stage or the bearing of live young from a yolky egg, or both, are typical in cephalopods and most nonmarine and many marine gastropods.

Many species go through two breeding seasons per year, whereas in some cephalopod species mating or egg laying appears to be rapidly followed by death effected by hormones. The majority of bivalves are dioecious two sexes. Their two gonads are very closely situated next to each other and they encompass the intestinal loops. The gonoducts are very simple as there is no copulation amongst bivalves.

In the Protobranchs and Filibranchs, the gonoducts opens directly into the nephridia and provide for the exit of sperm and eggs. In the Eumellibranchs, the gonoducts opens directly into the mantle cavity very close to the nephridiopore. A few bivalves such as the Cockles Cardiidae , Poromyidae, a few of the oysters and scallops Pectinidae , some of the fresh water clams Sphaeriidae and Unionidae are hermaphroditic one sex.

In most of the bivalves, sperm and eggs are released into the surrounding water where fertilization occurs. The eggs and sperm, which were deposited into the suprabrachial chamber, are swept out along with the exhalent current. In a few of the bivalves, such as the common oyster Ostrea edulis L. The fertilized eggs then develop in the gill filaments. In some of the freshwater hermaphrodites, self - fertilization may actually occur in the genital ducts before the eggs are deposited into the suprabranchial chamber.

The eggs then travel into the water tubes of the gill and there they develop into larvae. Courtship, which in some species can be quite elaborate, is often a precursor to copulation. Gonads are located in the posterior of the body. In some species, males can be distinguished by the modified sucker discs found at the tips of his longer two tentacles.

If this happens, the male simply grows a new one: no problem!! Within two months of mating, the female octopus will attach long strands of clustered eggs resembling a cluster of grapes to the ceiling of her lair.

While the eggs are incubating, the female will gently caress them to keep them clean and free of bacteria. She also keeps a steady flow of fresh, oxygenated water flowing over her precious eggs. When they are ready to hatch, her caresses become more rigorous, this helps the young to escape from their egg sacs.

The pelagic Cephalopod family Argonautidae, commonly knows as the paper nautilus, have a remarkable adaptation for egg deposition. The two dorsal arms of the female are greatly expanded at their tip to form a membrane. The expanded portion of each arm secretes one half of a beautiful calcareous bivalved shell. She then deposits her eggs directly into this case. The shell acts as both a brood chamber and a retreat for the female. The posterior of the female usually remains in this shell.

The male, which is much smaller than the female, does not have such a shell and is often found in cohabitation within the same shell, more or less as a freeloader. The gonads, ovaries and testes, of all vertebrates are similar in structure and function.

The gonads are usually paired although they may be fused or single in some groups. The testes in all vertebrates produce millions of sperm at a time. As we shall see, the major differences in male reproductive systems involve the mechanisms for transferring those millions of sperm to the ova. Ovaries produce ova surrounded by fluid filled sacs called follicles.

These follicles burst releasing ova into the coelom and then the oviduct. The number of ova produced at any one time varies considerably depending upon the habitat of the animal and the amount of parental care the young will receive. Thus fish, like the cod, which release unprotected eggs into the ocean and do not care for their young may produce and release more than a million eggs at once. Other fish and amphibians which do not broadcast their ova as far afield or which give some measure of parental protection to the eggs may produce thousands of eggs at once.

Birds and mammals, which invest considerable parental energy in protecting their offspring both before and after birth, produce only a few eggs ova at one time. Once ova are released from the ovary, they are transported through the oviduct toward the exterior. In the case of fish and amphibians, which release shell-less eggs, the oviduct is essentially an unspecialized tube leading indirectly to the exterior. Birds and reptiles produce shelled eggs; the shell is critical in protecting the egg from desiccation in the terrestrial environment.

The initial stages of embryonic development are almost identical for both lower and higher level invertebrates. Fish embryonic development consists of seven stages leading to hatching.

These stages are the zygote period, cleavage period, blastula period, gastrula period, segmentation period, pharyngula period, and finally hatching. Fish embryonic development begins after inception with the zygote period. During this time the embryo develops one cell that looks like a half bubble. This lasts on average for 45 minutes with a cell.

The chorion, also known as the egg shell, will swell and lift away from the fertilized egg. The next stage of embryonic development allows the fish to rapidly accumulate new cells.

As cleavage occurs, the cells will divide at minute intervals. During this stage organs will begin to become visible, and the developing tail becomes more prominent. The embryonic structure also elongates. Next the pharyngula period occurs, where the fish will begin to exhibit fully formed organs. This can last anywhere from 24 to 48 hours.

It is during this period that the distinction between upper and lower vertebrate embryonic development can be made. During the next 48 to 72 hours the external indicators of the fish develop. Gills, jaw and pectoral fins grow at an accelerated rate.

Once development is complete the tiny fish is ready to hatch. Over the next several days the fish larvae will emerge from their eggs at various rates, ready to hide and grow in their new environment. Hormones involved in reproduction and their sources transaction of external signal.

The External environment where the fish is living plays vital role in inducing the animal to go for maturation. The pineal organ through the photoreceptor cells and other environmental culs produce electrical pulse which includes the production of melatonin from Nacetyl serotomin in the presence of hydroxyindole—O- methyl transferare an enzyme.

Spring spawner normally breed during the lengthier photoperiod where as the winter spawner breed during only shorter photoperiod. Testosterone increase spermatogenesis after spermination amount decrease 2.

Secondary serval character regulation 4. It involves in spermiation process by conrolling ionic composition in the seminial fluid and involves in spawn behaviour of male and female.

Altesia is involved in the removal of unused gametes after the spawning season; any may be related to the change in hormone level after spawning. Open navigation menu. Close suggestions Search Search. User Settings. In many nonhuman species, features of the penis may have evolved in response to the selective pressures of sperm competition.

Sperm displacement is not limited to damselflies, but exists in many insect species. Several arguments have been offered to explain how the length and shape of the human penis might reflect adaptation to an evolutionary history of sperm competition. Additionally, it has been suggested that the length, width, and shape of the human penis indicate that it may have evolved to function as a semen displacement device.

Using artificial genitals and simulated semen, Gallup et al. Gallup and his colleagues documented that artificial phalluses with a glans and a coronal ridge approximating a real human penis displaced significantly more simulated semen than did a phallus without these features. When the penis is inserted into the vagina, the frenulum of the glans makes possible semen displace- ment by allowing semen to flow back under the penis alongside the frenulum and collect on the anterior of the shaft behind the coronal ridge.

Such vigorous copulatory behaviors are likely to increase semen displacement. In an independent test, Goetz and his colleagues investigated whether and how men under a high risk of sperm competition i. Using a self-report survey, men in committed, sexual relationships reported their use of specific copulatory behaviors, including number of thrusts, deepest thrust, average depth of thrusts, and duration of sexual intercourse, behaviors arguably affording a better chance to displace rival semen.

As hypothesized, men mated to women who place them at high recurrent risk of sperm compe- tition were more likely to perform semen-displacing behaviors. Such con- sequences might be minimized, however, if the time between successive in-pair copulations is much greater than the time between copulations involving different men.

Furthermore, the costs associated with self-semen displacement might be minimal because ejaculation fol- lows copulatory behavior that might have removed sperm. Research informed by sperm competi- tion theory is just beginning to uncover those behaviors. Women who are not in a long-term relationship but who engage in short-term matings may present a moderate risk of sperm competition, because women who engage in short-term matings proba- bly do not experience difficulty obtaining willing sexual partners.

Women in a long-term relationship may present the highest risk of sperm competition. As predicted, Shackelford et al. These results suggest that, when selecting short-term sexual partners, men may do so in part to avoid sperm competition, even if they gain other benefits from select- ing uninvolved women as short-term sexual partners, for instance, avoiding retaliation by kin and resident males. Alternatively, men may prefer unmated women so as to avoid the costs associated with contracting a sexually transmitted disease STD.

The data, however, refute this alternative explanation. The potential short-term partner most likely to be infected with an STD would be the one having casual sex and, therefore, least preferred according to this alternative hypothesis; however, the married potential sexual partner was the least preferred.

Although never investigated empirically, one may assert with confidence that many men are sexually aroused by the exclusive sexual interaction between two women. A common scenario in mainstream movies and television shows, for example, involves two women, often implied or explicit het- erosexuals, kissing or performing other sexual acts with one another while a male audience observes the acts and becomes sexually aroused.

Similarly, two women dancing seductively with one another tends to stimulate interest among observing men. Bringing sperm competition theory to bear, however, might argue that sexual arousal occurs because the behavior cues an absence of sperm competition.

Although speculative and difficult to test, this hypothesis serves to illustrate how the application of sperm competition theory to human mating psychol- ogy and behavior generates interesting and novel hypotheses.

Although the absence of sperm competition in a potential sexual part- ner may be sexually arousing, it has also been argued that the presence of sperm competition may result in sexual arousal. Pound argued that men should find cues of increased sperm competition risk sexually arous- ing because these call for frequent copulation as an effective method of paternity assurance.

He further hypothesized that men, therefore, should be more aroused by pornography that incorporates cues of sperm competi- tion than by comparable material in which such cues are absent. Strengthening his claim, an online survey of self-reported preferences and an online preference study that unobtrusively examined image selection behavior yielded corroborative results. Pound argued that the most parsimonious explanation for such results is that male arousal in response to visual cues of sperm com- petition risk reflects the functioning of psychological mechanisms that would have motivated adaptive patterns of copulatory behavior in ances- tral males exposed to evidence of female promiscuity.

This increased per- ception of sperm competition could antagonize the Coolidge effect. That is, whereas typically a male might be expected to show a decline in sexual interest in a sexual partner, visual cues of sperm competition could reduce this effect and increase sexual interest. Computerized morphing techniques e. Moreover, they report increased sexual desire for their partner following such encounters with other men, and most acutely after witnessing their partner engaging in sexual intercourse Gould, Pretending to be someone other than himself may activate mechanisms associated with an increased risk of sperm competition, resulting in increased sexual arousal.

For example, by role-playing, a man might see his partner behave as if she were copulating with another man. Alternatively, role-playing may be sexually arousing to men and women because it exploits mechanisms associated with sexual variety. Teasing the two hypotheses apart would require, among other tests, documenting how willing or excited men and women are to adopt a different role during role-playing. If the data revealed that when role- playing with their partners men are willing and excited to adopt a dif- ferent role themselves, while simultaneously being unconcerned with whether or not their female partners do so, this evidence may constitute preliminary support for the sperm competition risk hypothesis.

Throughout this and the previous section, we discussed seemingly con- tradictory findings and hypotheses. If the circumstance involves actual behavior, encouraging sperm competition might be maladaptive and, thus, avoided e.

If the circumstance involves imagined behavior e. That is, imagining or viewing cues to sperm competition can increase quantity and motility of sperm, markers of the competitiveness of an ejaculate. Thus, circumstances involving imagined behavior might involve encouraging sperm competition e. Swingers occur very infrequently in the population Talese, and probably represent the negative tail on a distribution of normal jealousy. That is, most men the middle of the jealousy distri- bution have jealousy mechanisms that are activated given appropriate input e.

Goetz and Shackelford found empirical support for this hypothesis in two studies. Starratt, Goetz, Shackelford, and McKibbin also reported that men who use certain types of insults against their part- ners, particularly accusations of sexual infidelity, are more likely to sex- ually coerce their partners. In other words, men who accuse their partners of having sex with one or more other men are more likely, rela- tive to men who do not make those accusations, to sexually coerce their partners.

This finding is important because two general hypotheses currently explain why many women experience sex- ual coercion by their intimate partners. Although there is accumulating evidence that males prudently allo- cate sperm and engage differential psychological strategies that appear to be designed as a response to female infidelity, the neural correlates of such strategies have only recently been investigated. MCKIBBIN then two recent studies suggest a network of brain substrates that, in the context of sperm competition, might be implicated in the neural con- trol of physiological changes.

Rilling, Winslow, and Kilts used positron emission tomography PET to measure brain activation when male rhesus macaques were allowed to observe their exclusive female mating partner engaging in copulation with a rival male.

In this situa- tion, activation was observed in the right superior temporal sulcus STS and amygdala. Rilling et al. In a similar study conducted with humans, Takahashi et al. Because the amygdala is highly innervated with androgen receptors, increased anxiety and vigilance about partner infi- delity could subsequently activate a system designed to respond to pos- sible sperm competition.

This hypothesis was partially supported by Rilling et al. Shackelford et al. Similarly, Winston et al. This arousal might then lead to increased execution of sperm competitive behaviors and, possibly, to prudent sperm allocation.

Some data are accumulating that implicate the superior temporal sulcus STS in decisions about social interactions e. Thus, the STS activation reported by Rilling et al. Processing associated with social evaluation might also feed into the ACC. Because facial resemblance appears to serve as an indicator of paternity Platek et al. Even apart from the remarkable feat of traversing a hostile reproduc- tive tract to fertilize an ovum or ova, sperm do some astonishing things.

These trains display greater motility and velocity than single sperm, thereby facilitating fertilization. This cooperative behav- ior between sperm of a single male reveals that sperm are capable of complex behavior. Might mammalian sperm display equally complex behavior in the presence of rival sperm? Mammalian ejaculates contain sperm that are polymorphic, that is, existing in different morphologies or shapes and sizes.

These occurrences were previously interpreted as the result of developmental error Cohen, Harcourt argued that, if deformed sperm were produced by an adaptation, inbreeding would not increase the expression of the trait, but instead would decrease it. Following Cohen , Harcourt , p. They proposed an even more active role for kamikaze sperm, speculating that evolution- ary competition between ejaculates could result in kamikaze sperm that incapacitate rival sperm with acrosomal enzymes or by inducing attack by female leucocytes.

Baker and Bellis interpreted these findings as an indication that, when encountering sperm from another male, some sperm impede the progress of rival sperm blockers and some sperm attack and incapacitate rival sperm seek-and-destroy- ers. The Kamikaze Sperm Hypothesis and the reported interaction of rival sperm have generated substantial criticism, however see, e. One criticism was that Baker and Bellis did not adequately label the sperm during the interac- tions so that it was not possible to determine if rival sperm were inter- acting or if self-sperm were interacting.

It should be noted, however, that only a few of the predictions derived from the Kamikaze Sperm Hypoth- esis were tested by Baker and Bellis and even fewer were tested by Moore et al. After mixing sperm from different men and com- paring these heterospermic samples to self-sperm i. Moore and his colleagues did not replicate exactly the methodological procedures used by Baker and Bellis , however.

Heterospermic and homospermic samples, for example, were allowed to interact for just 1 to 3 hours, whereas Baker and Bellis allowed them to interact for fully 3 to 6 hours. Moore et al. Upon insemination, sperm have one of two initial fates: Some are ejected or secreted from the vagina and some travel quickly from the vagina to the cervix and uterus.

Perhaps the majority of sperm competition takes place in the cervix and uterus, locations in the reproductive tract where sperm are able to interact for a prolonged period. In addition, both Baker and Bellis and Moore et al. Clearly, more work remains before a clear conclusion about the status of the hypothesis can be drawn.

Yet, recent work by Kura and Nakashima might be viewed as encouraging for supporters of the hypothesis, however. Tsang, Y. Chung, P. Chan, Q. Repaske, D. Darszon, A. Guerrero, B. Galindo, T. Wood, Sperm- [60] H. Chan, X. Sun, SLC26 anion exchangers in uterine epithelial cells and activating peptides in the regulation of ion fluxes, signal transduction and spermatozoa: clues from the past and hints to the future, Cell Biol.

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Harumi, K. Hoshino, N. Growth Differ. Schackmann, E. Eddy, B. Shapiro, The acrosome reaction of sea urchin spermatozoa through membrane potential changes induced by the Strongylocentrotus purpuratus sperm. Ion requirements and movements, egg peptide speract, J. Nishigaki, F. Zamudio, L. Possani, A. Darszon, Time-resolved sperm [] C. Arnoult, Y. Zeng, H. Florman, ZP3-dependent activation of sperm cation responses to an egg peptide measured by stopped-flow fluorometry, channels regulates acrosomal secretion during mammalian fertilization, J.

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Ikawa, N. Inoue, A. Benham, M. Vilela-Silva, N. Hirohashi, P. Nishigaki, A. Darszon, Real-time measurements of the interactions polysaccharides ensures a carbohydrate-based mechanism for species between fluorescent speract and its sperm receptor, Dev. January — Garbers, Molecular basis of fertilization, Annu. Santella, F. Vasilev, J. Chun, Fertilization in echinoderms, Biochem.

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These finding were reported contrarily across other studies where they find no association between alcohol consumption and sperm quality Kunzle et al. Due to this variation, the conventional sperm parameters may therefore do not reflect the true quality of the spermatozoa in association of alcohol intake. In this case, assessment of sperm DNA damage seems to be a more precise tool in diagnosis infertility in male.

Hereby, this systematic review was done in order to summarize the available information regarding the effect of alcohol consumption on the sperm DNA integrity based on preclinical and clinical evidences. Subsequently, we would like to point out where is needed for further research in the future.

Methods 2. During the first phase, the titles and abstract were scrutinized thoroughly. Following this, the study that did not meet the inclusion criteria were immediately excluded. Full articles were obtained for the remaining list that were likely to meet the selection criteria. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were finalized upon examination of the full articles. Any opinion opposition regarding the inclusion and exclusion criteria were resolved by third reviewer KO consensus.

For this review, we recorded the sample size that was related only to alcohol consumption, dose and duration of alcohol consumed, the age of animal sample or human subject, sperm DNA assay type, cut off point of DNA damage and sperm DNA test results in relation to alcohol consumption. Results 3. Only one article was removed over duplication.

Further 18 articles were excluded Bjelakovic et al. Full papers were obtained for the remaining 5 articles and reviewing were done thoroughly Figure 1. Flow chhart of the literrature search 3. A All reviewed sttudies have a ddifferent approoach on measu uring DNA integgrity with one study reportedd that the DNA A migrated fartther in the ratss consuming allcohol comparred to control grooup by using pulse field eleectrophoresis Abel, However statiistical analysiss was not stated to measure thhe differencess.

Thesse two studiess have demonsstrated the sam me result in alc cohol consumptiion group in which w CMA3, TB and AO sshowed signifiicant result com mpared to conntrol group. On the other handd, AB does noot show signifiicant result com mpared to conntrol group. Off these two stuudies, one inclludes diabetes ass a confoundinng factor Pouurentezari et all.

All tthree reviewedd studies of alccohol consump ption use weeks age of roddents but with ddifferent dosess of alcohol and alcohol treattment period. Two studies of alcohol consumption oon human alsoo reported a ddirect associatiion of alcohol consumption with DNA fraggmentation.

Off these two sttudies, one repported the siggnificant differrence of DNA A damage betw ween moderate and heavy alcohol consum mption but noot significantlly difference with non-alcooholic group.

This studyy demonstrateed an increasee of demethyylation in heaavy alcohol coonsumption ggroup compare ed to nondrinkinng alcohol grooup at 2 imprinnted loci whicch are normally hypermethyylated. The agee for subject use u in this study was range bettween 19 to years old. Deefinition of mooderate and heeavy alcohol coonsumption in both study was slightly diffeerent. The assoociation of alccohol consumpption and sperrm DNA damaage reviewed were depicted inn Table 1. A difference of about 50 kilobase pairs was noted.

Talebi et al. Discussion 4. Its objectives were to assess the effect of strain, paternal and maternal alcohol consumption. The study found out that paternal alcohol consumption resulted in decreased litter size and testosterone levels. Fortunately, it did not affect postnatal mortality and passive avoidance learning of offspring.

On the same note, the rats strain affected their offspring activity. In contrast, maternal ethanol consumption did not affect offspring activity but it was associated with lower birth rate, lower offspring weight at weaning, poorer passive avoidance learning and increased in postnatal mortality.

Despite of the main design of the study, the study had selected sperm from Long Evans for their DNA study. They found out that sperm DNA from that strain migrated further compared to its control following ethanol consumption Abel, However, this study failed to report the statistical analysis.

Thus, the significance of 50 kilobase pairs between the tested group could not be concluded. In another experimental study, alcohol abuse model used Wistar rats. This study is interesting because it took spermatogenesis cycle duration 50 days into consideration. It also documented for the first time the effect of alcohol towards nuclear sperm DNA. They measured sperm motility and chromatin integrity from cauda epididymal aspiration.